To address your query about the meaning of the word "Satan" in the original Hebrew language before 1 BC, we will focus exclusively on Hebrew texts from that period, primarily the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), without influence from Greek or other languages. This response explores the etymology, usage, and theological context of "Satan" in ancient Hebrew scriptures to provide a clear and comprehensive understanding.
Etymology of "Satan" in Hebrew
In Hebrew, the word "Satan" is written as שָּׂטָן (pronounced satan). It derives from the root verb שָׂטַן (satan), which means "to oppose," "to accuse," or "to act as an adversary." At its core, satan is a common noun, not a proper name, and it refers to an adversary or opponent in a general sense. This root meaning is essential because it shapes how the term is used in the Hebrew Bible, applying to both human and divine figures depending on the context.
For example:
In Numbers 22:22, an angel of the Lord is described as a satan (adversary) to Balaam, standing in his path to oppose him.
In 1 Samuel 29:4, the Philistines worry that David might become a satan (adversary) to them during battle.
In 1 Kings 11:14, Hadad the Edomite is raised by God as a satan (adversary) against Solomon.
In these instances, satan simply means someone or something that opposes or obstructs, without any supernatural or evil connotation.
Usage of "Satan" in the Hebrew Bible
While satan often functions as a common noun, there are specific passages in the Hebrew Bible where it takes on a more defined role, particularly with the definite article "the" (הַשָּׂטָן, ha-satan), meaning "the adversary" or "the accuser." Below, we examine its key appearances in texts composed before 1 BC.
1. The Book of Job (Chapters 1-2)
In the Book of Job, likely one of the older texts in the Hebrew Bible, satan appears as "the satan" (ha-satan):
Job 1:6-12 and 2:1-7: "The satan" is among the "sons of God" (heavenly beings) who present themselves before God. He questions Job’s righteousness, suggesting that Job is faithful only because of God’s blessings. God allows "the satan" to test Job by afflicting him with misfortune, though under strict limits (e.g., sparing Job’s life initially).
Here, "the satan" is not a name but a title, referring to a heavenly figure who acts as an accuser or tester. Importantly, he operates under God’s authority, not as an independent entity. His role is to challenge human fidelity, aligning with the meaning of satan as "accuser" or "opponent."
2. Zechariah 3:1-2
In the post-exilic Book of Zechariah, written around the 6th-5th century BCE:
"The satan" stands beside Joshua the high priest to accuse him before God.
God rebukes "the satan" and defends Joshua.
Again, "the satan" is an accuser in a judicial-like setting within the divine council. The definite article indicates a specific role rather than a personal identity, consistent with its usage in Job.
3. 1 Chronicles 21:1
In 1 Chronicles, likely composed in the 5th-4th century BCE, satan appears without the definite article:
"Satan stood up against Israel and incited David to count the people of Israel."
This passage is notable because it is one of the first instances where "Satan" appears as a seemingly independent figure in the Hebrew Bible. However, to fully understand its meaning, we need to compare it to an earlier version of the same event.
Comparison with 2 Samuel 24:1
The same event is recorded in 2 Samuel 24:1, but with a key difference:
"And again the anger of the LORD was kindled against Israel, and He moved David against them, to say, Go, number Israel and Judah." (2 Samuel 24:1, KJV)
In 2 Samuel 24:1, it is God (YHWH) who incites David to take a census.
In 1 Chronicles 21:1, it is Satan who incites David.
This raises the question: Did God or Satan provoke David?
Theological Context in Ancient Hebrew Thought
ancient Hebrew theology was strictly monotheistic, viewing God as the sole sovereign power over all creation, including both good and adversity. This is evident in passages like:
Isaiah 45:7: "I form the light and create darkness, I make peace and create evil; I, the Lord, do all these things."
In this worldview, "the satan" is not an autonomous force of evil opposing God. Instead, when it appears as a heavenly figure (e.g., in Job and Zechariah), it is a servant of God, fulfilling a purpose—such as testing or accusing—within the divine order.
Absence of "Satan" in Major Narratives
Notably, many stories later associated with "Satan" in other traditions do not use the term in the Hebrew Bible:
Genesis 3 (The Serpent): The serpent in the Garden of Eden is never called satan. It is simply a cunning creature, with no textual link to a figure named "Satan" in the original Hebrew.
Other Adversaries: Agents like the "destroyer" in Exodus 12:23 or the "lying spirit" in 1 Kings 22:22 are not identified as satan. These are separate entities under God’s control.
Conclusion: Meaning of "Satan" in Hebrew Before 1 BC
In the original Hebrew language before 1 BC, based on the Tanakh:
"Satan" (שָּׂטָן, satan) primarily means "adversary," "opponent," or "accuser."
As a common noun, it applies to human or divine figures who oppose someone or something (e.g., Numbers 22:22, 1 Kings 11:14).
With the definite article (ha-satan), it denotes a specific role in the divine council, such as "the accuser" or "the adversary," seen in Job and Zechariah. This figure tests or accuses humans but remains subordinate to God.
Even in 1 Chronicles 21:1, where satan lacks the article, it likely refers to an adversary under divine authority, not an independent evil being.
Thus, before 1 BC, "Satan" in Hebrew did not signify a named, malevolent entity like the devil of later traditions. It was a term for opposition or accusation, often a functional role rather than a personal identity, deeply tied to God’s sovereignty in ancient Hebrew thought.